Defining child abuse

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Defining child abuse

Help and advice from the Child Protection in Sport Unit

Child abuse is any form of physical, emotional or sexual mistreatment or lack of care that leads to injury or harm.

It commonly occurs within a relationship of trust or responsibility and is an abuse of power or a breach of trust. Abuse can happen to a child regardless of their age, gender, race or ability. Abusers can be adults (male or female) and other young people, and are usually known to and trusted by the child and family.

There are four main types of child abuse: physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse and neglect. The abuser may be a family member, or they may be someone the child encounters in a residential setting or in the community, including during sports and leisure activities. An individual may abuse or neglect a child directly, or may be responsible for abuse because they fail to prevent another person harming that child.

Physical abuse

Physical abuse may involve hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning or scalding, drowning, suffocating, or otherwise causing physical harm to a child. Physical harm may also be caused when a parent or carer fabricates the symptoms of, or deliberately induces, illness in a child.
Examples of physical abuse in sport may be when a child is forced into training and competition that exceeds the capacity of his or her immature and growing body; or where the child is given drugs to enhance performance or delay puberty.

Sexual abuse

Sexual abuse involves forcing or enticing a child or young person to take part in sexual activities, including prostitution, whether or not the child is aware of what is happening. The activities may involve physical contact, including penetrative (e.g. rape, buggery or oral sex) or non-penetrative acts. They may include non-contact activities, such as involving children in looking at, or in the production of, sexual online images, watching sexual activities, or encouraging children to behave in sexually inappropriate ways.

In sport, coaching techniques which involve physical contact with children could potentially create situations where sexual abuse may go unnoticed. The power of the coach over young performers, if misused, may also lead to abusive situations developing.

Emotional abuse

Emotional abuse is the persistent emotional maltreatment of a child such as to cause severe and persistent adverse effects on the child’s emotional development. It may involve conveying to children that they are worthless or unloved, inadequate, or valued only insofar as they meet the needs of another person. It may feature age or developmentally inappropriate expectations being imposed on children. These may include interactions that are beyond the child’s developmental capability, as well as overprotection and limitation of exploration and learning, or preventing the child participating in normal social interaction.

It may involve seeing or hearing the ill-treatment of another. It may involve serious bullying, causing children frequently to feel frightened or in danger, or the exploitation or corruption of children. Some level of emotional abuse is involved in all types of maltreatment of a child, though it may occur alone.

Examples of emotional abuse in sport include subjecting children to constant criticism, name-calling, and sarcasm or bullying. Putting them under consistent pressure to perform to unrealistically high standards is also a form of emotional abuse.

Neglect

Neglect is the persistent failure to meet a child’s basic physical and/or psychological needs, likely to result in the serious impairment of the child’s health or development. Neglect may occur during pregnancy as a result of maternal substance abuse. Once a child is born, neglect may involve a parent or carer failing to:

provide adequate food, clothing and shelter (including exclusion from home or abandonment)
protect a child from physical and emotional harm or danger
ensure adequate supervision (including the use of inadequate care-givers)
ensure access to appropriate medical care or treatment.

It may also include neglect of, or unresponsiveness to, a child’s basic emotional needs.

Examples of neglect in sport could include: not ensuring children are safe; exposing them to undue cold or heat, or exposing them to unnecessary risk of injury.

Abuse of children and young people with a disability

Some children and young people with a disability are mentally or physically more vulnerable than others, which could make it easier for abusers to exploit them. They may also find it more difficult to recognise and report abuse, and to be believed. For example, if their disability means that they:

Have limited life experiences and so have not developed the social skills needed to work out what the behaviour and attitudes of others mean. This could make them less able to understand what is appropriate and inappropriate behaviour.
Have been encouraged to comply with other people’s wishes and not to question authority figures.
Are afraid to challenge potentially abusive situations because of fear of the consequences. It is often easier to be compliant and pleasing rather than risk angering an authority figure and getting into trouble.
May not be able to report abuse either because there is no-one they can report it to or because they do not have the appropriate language to use.
May not be able to recognise that abuse has taken place.
Feel powerless because they have to depend on others for personal support.
May not be able to physically remove themselves from abusive situations.
Are not believed because their authority figures cannot accept that anyone would abuse a disabled child.
May not have anybody they can trust and confide in.
May feel guilt or shame about the abuse which prevents them from reporting it.
May not have a sense of ownership of their own bodies because they are so used to being examined physically by others as part of their medical and physical care.
Have low self-esteem and a poor self image.

In addition to the four main types of abuse shown above, children with a disability in residential homes or other institutions might experience:

Institutional abuse - when staff in a home or other institutions sacrifice the needs, wishes and lifestyle of a disabled child in favour of the institution's regime. For example, by showing lack of respect for a child's dignity or privacy, or denying them opportunity to make day-to-day choices or decisions about their life. An example in sport would be if coaches or volunteers followed their club's usual procedures where these conflicted with the rights and needs of a disabled child.
Financial abuse - deliberate misuse and exploitation of a disabled child's money or possessions. For example, if the child is not allowed to spend their money as they wish, or if someone takes it from them to spend on themselves.

The above definitions are adapted from:

HM Government (2006) Working together to safeguard children: a guide to inter-agency working to safeguard and promote the welfare of children. London: Department for Education and Skills (DfES).
Kerr, A. (1999) Protecting disabled children and adults in sport and recreation: the guide. Leeds: The National Coaching Foundation.
Bailey, G. (1998) Action against abuse: recognising and preventing abuse of people with learning disabilities. ARC Publications.

Racism

Children from black and minority ethnic groups (and their parents) are likely to have experienced harassment, racial discrimination and institutional racism. Although racism causes significant harm it is not, in itself, a category of abuse. All organisations working with children, including those operating where black and minority ethnic communities are numerically small, should address institutional racism, defined in the MacPherson Inquiry Report on Stephen Lawrence as 'the collective failure by an organisation to provide appropriate and professional service to people on account of their race, culture and/or religion'.

It is important that sports leaders are sensitive to differing family patterns and lifestyles and to child-rearing patterns that vary across different racial, ethnic and cultural groups. At the same time they must be clear that child abuse cannot be condoned for religious or cultural reasons.

Sports Leaders should also be aware of the broader social factors that serve to discriminate against black and minority ethnic people. Working in a multi-racial and multicultural society requires professionals and organisations to be committed to equality in meeting the needs of all children and families, and to understand the effects of racial harassment, racial discrimination and institutional racism, as well as cultural misunderstanding or misinterpretation.

Sports Leaders should guard against myths and stereotypes - both positive and negative - of black and minority ethnic families. Anxiety about being accused of racist practice should not prevent the necessary action being taken to safeguard and promote a child’s welfare.

All children, whatever their religious or cultural background, must receive the same care and safeguards with regard to abuse and neglect.

Bullying

Bullying, racism and other types of discrimination are forms of child abuse, even though those responsible are often young people. It is important to recognise the impact and extent of bullying and discrimination in the lives of young people. Sports organisations have a duty of care to safeguard children from harm, including disabled children and others who may be particularly vulnerable. For further information see Anti-bullying resources from the CPSU.

What is bullying?
Bullying can be psychological, verbal, or physical in nature. It involves an imbalance of power in which the powerful attack the powerless, and occurs over time rather than being a single act. Examples of bullying behaviour include:

being called names, insulted or verbally abused
being deliberately embarrassed and humiliated by other children
being made to feel different or like an outsider
being lied about
being physically assaulted or threatened with violence
being ignored.

In the NSPCC study, Child maltreatment in the United Kingdom: a study of the prevalence of child abuse and neglect (2000), boys were most likely to experience physical bullying or threats, or have property stolen or damaged. Girls were more likely to be ignored or not spoken to.

Bullying by adults was a less common experience but one in ten young people reported this. Their most common experiences of adult bullying were:

being deliberately embarrassed or humiliated
being unfairly treated or verbally abused
being ignored or not spoken to.