Ethical issues in research with children
A selection of books, articles and web resources
Books and reports
Doing research with children. 2nd ed.Greig, Anne, Taylor, Jayne and MacKay, Tommy
London: Sage, 2007
ISBN: 9781412918459
A practical guide to undertaking research with children. Considers the special nature of children in research and looks at theories and approaches. Explores the review and design as well as how to conduct research with children -evaluating research with children, the importance of questions, designing and doing quantitative research with children, designing and doing qualitative research with children. Also looks at consultation and participation, ethics, themes and perspectives.
Children as researchers (PDF)Brownlie, Julie, Anderson, Simon and Ormston, Rachel
[Edinburgh]: Scottish Executive, 2006
This report presents the findings from a research project sponsored by the Scottish Executive which explored the problems and possibilities of incorporating a 'children as researchers' perspective into the agenda of government social research in Scotland. This project had three elements: a mapping exercise of recent projects in the UK, a review of existing literature relating to children doing research and qualitative interviews with policy makers, researchers, research managers and young researchers. Results indicate that there needs to be a change in the mindset within government regarding the possibilities for children's participation in research.
Ethical issues in community-based research with children and youth.Leadbetter, B., Banister, E., Beniot, C., Jansson, M., Marshall, A. and Rieckan, T.
Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 2006
Researching children's experience: approaches and methods.Greene, Sheila and Hogan, Diane (eds.)
London: Sage, 2005
ISBN: 0761971033
Looks at conceptual, methodological and ethical issues in researching children's experiences; methods for conducting research with children; and the generation and analysis of text.
Ethical research with children.Farrell, Ann (ed.)
Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University, 2005
ISBN: 0335216501
This book looks at the issues and theories involved in conducting ethical research with children. It covers methodological and procedural issues such as research design, research with very young children, researching sensitive issues, including children with disabilities and issues of power. It uses examples from a range of research and provides strategies for carrying out research with children.
Conducting social research with young people: ethical considerations.McCarry, M
In:
Researching gender violence: feminist methodologies in action.T. Skinner, M. Hester and E. Malos.
Devon: Willian Publishing, 2005.
Children are service users too: a guide to consulting children and young people. Revised ed.Fajerman, Lina, Treseder, Phil, and Connor, Joyce
Save the Children: 2004
ISBN: 1841870862
A practical guide for organisations looking at their practice in consulting with children and young people. It is particularly aimed at organisations applying for the Charter Mark. Provides check lists and question and answer sections which are useful to those new to consulting children and young people. Includes tried and tested consultation methods.
Ethics, social research and consulting with children and young people. Revised ed.Alderson, Priscilla, and Morrow, Virginia
Ilford, Essex: Barnardo's, 2004
ISBN: 1904659071
Examines the ethical questions raised when planning a research project which involves consultation with children and young people. Looks at issues such as choice of questions, methods and samples, assessing harm and benefits, children's rights and privacy, consent, reporting and dissemination of findings. Compares and contrasts social research ethics with those of medical research.
Children's participation in research: reflections from the Care and Protection of Separated Children in Emergencies project.Mann, Gillian, and Tolfree, David
Stockholm: Save the Children. Sweden, 2003
Reviews the experience of involving children in case studies initiated by the Save the Children Alliance research initiative entitled Care and Protection of Separated Children in Emergencies. Looks at the ways in which children were involved and highlights some of the factors which need to be considered in
determining children's role in research.
Children and participation: research, monitoring and evaluation with children and young people.Save the Children
London: Save the Children, 2001
"This publication is about participatory information gathering in the process of research, monitoring and evaluation with children and young people. Its purpose is to guide the reader toward sources of information rather than provide detailed descriptions of participatory project work or involving children in advocacy or policy work. Key sources are therefore highlighted either after each piece of text, or at the end in the bibliography." Includes information on good practice and ethics, and methods and tools.
Research with children: perspectives and practices.Christensen, Pia and Allison, James (eds.)
London: Falmer Press, 2000
ISBN: 075070974X
Discusses the dilemmas of psychological research with children and the methodology of childhood research, including children as subjects and participants in the research process. Topics include: zeitgeist research, macroanalysis, quantitative methods, generational issues, developing a reflexive approach, and children as researchers.
Making research work: promoting child care policy and practice.Iwaniec, Dorota and Pinkerton, John (eds.)
Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley, 1998
ISBN: 047197952X
Draws together discussion of the key issues associated in researching child care. In three parts: the relationship of research to policy and practice; challenging contemporary developments; and promoting and securing a basis for research.
Children in focus: a manual for participatory research with children.Boyden, Jo ed., and Ennew, Judith ed.
Stockholm: Save the Children. Sweden, 1997
Aimed at those planning a learning process in participatory research with children for researchers and field workers. Discusses core issues and principles for good practice in participatory research with children. Looks at core philosophy behind the notion of participatory research with children, ethical concerns in research with children, and theoretical and conceptual issues relating to cultural and social constructions of childhood, children's rights and global understandings of childhood. Includes chapters on research methods, classroom-based and field-based learning about participatory, children-focused research methods, and data analysis.
Children as research subjects: science, ethics and law.Grodin, Michael A. ed., and Glantz, Leonard H. ed.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994
ISBN: 0195071034
Considers the questions and controversies surrounding the use of children as research subject in terms of biomedical science, child psychology, ethics, and the law, providing a careful balance between individual and societal benefits.
Social research on children and adolescents: ethical issues.Stanley, Barbara ed., and Sieber, Jo
Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992
ISBN: 0803943342
Examination of concrete research problems in light of ethical principles and legal requirements. Addresses how to assess risks and benefits within a developmental framework; what legal constraints and ethical principles guide research practice; and how to explain research participation to youth who differ greatly in their comprehension of the enterprise.
Harms, benefits, wrongs and rights in fieldwork.Cassell, J.
In:
The ethics of social research: fieldwork, regulation and publication .
Sieber, J.E. (ed)
New York; Springer. 1982
Articles
Research with young children: contemplating methods and ethics (PDF)
Birkbeck, David J. and Drummond, Murray J. N.
Journal of Educational Enquiry 7(2), 2007: 21-31.
Seeks to examine and challenge the rationale for the omission of children's voices in studies that relate directly to children. Examines the empirical evidence surrounding children's abilities and presents an argument that seeks to question the assumptions embedded in methodologies designed for use with adults which, when applied to research with children, may lead to ethical dilemmas.
The ethical maze: finding an inclusive path towards gaining children's agreement to research participation
Cocks, A.
Childhood 13(2), 2006: 247-266.
'If we help you what will change?': participatory research with young people.Petrie, Stephanie, Fiorelli, Lisa, and O'Donnell, Katie
Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law 28(1), March 2006: 31-45.
Explores the ways in which young people were included as research participants in a major study on teenage pregnancy and young parenthood. Discusses whether or not it is possible to involve young people in research in ways that are more than 'tokenistic'. It also considers whether or not the research process, the researchers and research participants benefit from such involvement.
Involving young service users as co-researchers: possibilities, benefits and costs.McLaughlin, Hugh
British Journal of Social Work 36(8), December 2006: 1395-1410.
This article looks at the benefits and costs of involving young service users in research. It considers the benefits and costs in relation to research and development, research dissemination, service development and service users. It concludes that participation in research is beneficial for the young service user co-researchers and the adult researchers, but that there is insufficient evidence as to its impact on practice and service delivery.
Conducting research with children: the limits of confidentiality and child protection protocols.Williamson, Emma, Goodenough, Trudy, Kent, Julie, and Ashcroft, Richard
Children and Society 19(5), November 2005: 397-409.
This article looks at the issues of confidentiality relating to child protection in conducting research with children.
Working with students as researchers: ethical issues of a participatory process (PDF)Olitsky, Stacy, and Weathers, John
Forum: Qualitative Social Research 6(1), January 2005: 1-20.
Describes a research study into urban science education involving young African-Americans. Finds the academic discourse surrounding the research process is seen by the young researchers as a barrier to participation through reaffirming social boundaries. Argues for a reflexive research process and making explicit issues of power, knowledge and exclusivity to ensure research methods do not undermine political and ethical research goals.
Research with children: a critical review of the guidelines.Neill, Sarah J.
Journal of Child Health Care 9(1), 2005: 46-58.
This article considers the ethical issues involved in conducting research with children. The key principles found were that it is unethical not to conduct research with children, consent should be obtained, if information concerning risk to the child emerges confidentiality cannot be guaranteed and the impact of the research on the child must be considered.
Using computer-assisted self-interviewing (CASI) questionnaires to facilitate consultation and participation with vulnerable young people.Davies, Murray, and Morgan, Alun
Child Abuse Review 14(6), Nov-Dec 2005: 389-406.
This article looks at the use of computer assisted self interviewing with vulnerable children. Includes a literature review and case study.
'How come I don't get asked no questions?' Researching 'hard to reach' children and teenagers.Curtis, Katherine, Roberts, Helen, Copperman, Jeanette, Downie, Anna, and Liabo, Kristin
Child and Family Social Work 9(2), May 2004: 167-175.
Discusses two related areas of research practice with children and young people. Firstly, working with children and teenagers for whom the traditional, discursive nature of interview-based research is less accessible. Secondly, the disinclination of researchers to report on difficulties in the research process. Includes findings of a review of the literature.
Working with ethical symmetry in social research with children.
Christensen, P. and Prout, A.
Childhood, 4, 2002: 477-497.
Research with children: sharing the dilemmas.Cree, Viviene E., Kay, Helen, and Tisdall, Kay
Child and Family Social Work 7(1), 2002: 47-56.
Using the example of a research project involving Scottish children and young people whose parent or carer is HIV positive, the authors discuss how the principles of good practice in research with children can be reconciled with the practical realities of conducting a research project involving children.
Including children in social research.Harker, Rachael and NCB
Highlight 193, July 2002: 2.
Provides an overview of the pertinent factors to consider when undertaking research with children and young people, including: informed consent; access to participants and confidentiality; generating data; research bias; and, monitoring impact and closure of research.
Children and school-based research: 'informed consent' or 'educated consent'.
David, M., Edwards, R. and Alldred, P.
British Educational Research Journal 27(3), 2001: 247-265.
Computer-administered interviews with children about maltreatment: methodological, developmental and ethical issues.Black, Maureen M., and Ponirakis, Angelo
Journal of Interpersonal Violence 15(7), July 2000: 682-695.
Looks at the advantages and disadvantages of using computer-administered questionnaires to interview children in maltreatment research with consideration to the methodological, developmental and ethical aspects of interviewing.
Directly questioning children and adolescents about maltreatment: a review of survey measures used.Amaya-Jackson, Lisa, Socolar, Rebecca R. S., Hunter, Wanda, Runyan Desmond K., and Colindres, Rom
Journal of Interpersonal Violence 15(7), July 2000: 725-759.
Looks at the methodological, legal, and ethical issues relating to the questioning of children and adolescents about their maltreatment experiences.
Following up children who have been abused: ethical considerations for research design.Lynch, Margaret A., Glaser, Danya, Prior, Vivien, and Inwood, Vivien
Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review 4(2), 1999: 68-75.
A study of the post-disclosure experience of sexually abused children and their carers which considers the children's social and emotional functioning, and their opinions about the services they had received.
Adult images of childhood and research on client children.Sandbaek, Mona
International Journal of Social Research Methodology 2(3), Jul/Sep 1999: 191-2.
Considers parental attitudes in respect to the participation of children in research studies, particularly in respect to children who are receiving services from child welfare, school counselling or child psychiatric clinics, and, the implications resulting from conflicting adult images of children as either vulnerable or competent.
Realising children's agency in research: partners or participants?Pole, Christopher, Mizen, Philip, and Bolton, Angela
International Journal of Social Research Methodology 2(1), Jan/Mar 1999: 39-54.
Discusses the involvement of children in research and why they are reduced, at best, to participants rather than partners in the research process.
Not as bad as it could have been: assessing and mitigating harm during research on sensitive topics.Kavanagh, K. and Ayres, L.
Research in Nursing and Health, 21, 1998: 91-97.
Discusses strategies for minimising distress during interview research. Describes verbal and nonverbal indicators of distress during a phenomenological study on perinatal loss. Offers suggestions for interviewers on ways to minimize participants' discomfort.
The ethics of participatory research with children.Thomas, Nigel, and O'Kane, Claire
Children and Society 12(5), 1998: 336-348
Argues that ethical problems in research involving direct contact with children can be overcome by using a participatory approach. A study of children's participation in decisions when they are looked after is described. Concludes a participatory approach can also assist with reliability and validity.
If you were a teacher, it would be harder to talk to you: reflections on qualitative research with children in school.Morrow, Virginia
International Journal of Social Research Methodology 1(4), 1998: 297-313
Research methods to help build up a picture of how children perceive and define "family". Considers the research setting (school), questions of ethnicity, the methods (structured activities, sentence completion and writing, and group discussions), and research ethics.
Engaging with primary-aged children about their emotions and well-being: methodological considerations.
Hill, Malcolm, and Laybourn, Ann, and Borland, Moira
Children and Society 10(2), 1996: 129-144.
Describes some of the benefits of combining focus group discussions and individual interviews.
Children as research subjects: a risky enterprise.Hood, Suzanne, and Kelley, Peter, and Mayall, Berry
Children and Society 10(2), 1996: 117-28.
Based on a qualitative study (Children, parents and risk). Focuses on gaining access to parents and children and the interviewing. Suggests the research process itself is a valuable source of data on models of childhood and risk.The ethics of social research with children: an overview.Morrow, Virginia, and Richards, Martin
Children and Society 10(2), 1996: 90-105.
Sets the discussion of ethical issues related to social research with children in the context of current debates in the UK. Explores the extent to which children should be regarded as similar to or different from adults. Looks at the positioning of children as vulnerable, incompetent, and powerless in society. Offers practical and methodological suggestions.
Qualitative health research with children.Ireland, Lorraine, and Holloway, Immy
Children and Society 10(2), 1996: 155-164.
Illustrates practical and ethical issues of qualitative research with children using a study about children's experience of asthma. Highlights the inherent difficulties relating to access, ethical and developmental issues. Concludes children's stage of development and the asymmetrical relationship between researcher and informants makes adequate safeguards and awareness of these issues essential.
Researching children: methods and ethics.Mahon, Ann, and Glendinning, Caroline, and Clarke, Karen, and Craig, Gary
Children and Society 10(2), 1996: 145-154.
Draws on studies of child carers and the impact of the Child Support Act 1991 to examine the methodological, ethical, theoretical, and practical implications of researching children's views. Identifies social, political and legal trends which form a background to growing interest in children as potential and actual participants in the research process.
Research with disabled children: how useful is child-centred ethics?
Alderson, Priscilla, and Goodey, Christopher
Children and Society 10(2), 1996: 106-116.
Based on research into the views of children and adults involved in education for children with physical, emotional and learning difficulties. Discusses the issue of physical access and social access. Argues the concept of 'child-centred' ethics is a barrier to successfully working with children.
Ethical issues in research with abused children.Kinard, E. Milling
Child Abuse and Neglect 9 1985: 301-311.
Discusses the ethical issues involved in research with abused children and the consequences of methods to handle these issues. Ethical questions arise at three stages: obtaining consent; conducting interviews or administering tests; providing information about results to parents or others outside the research team. Stresses the importance of discussing these issues, establishing the role and responsibility of the research and building contingency plans into research design.
Web resources
Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) - Research Ethics Framework
www.esrcsocietytoday.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/opportunities/research%5Fethics%5FframeworkSocial Research Association (SRA) - Ethical Guidelines
www.the-sra.org.uk/ethicalBritish Sociological Association - Statement of Ethical Practice
www.britsoc.co.uk/equality/Statement+Ethical+PracticeBritish Educational Research Association (BERA) - Research Guidelineswww.bera.ac.uk/publications/guidesMarket Research Society (MRS) - Standards and Guidelineswww.mrs.org.uk/standards/guidelinesBritish Psychological Society (BPS) - Code of Conduct and Ethical Guidelines
www.bps.org.uk/the-society/code-of-conduct/code-of-conduct_homeNational Children's Bureau (NCB) - Research Guidelineswww.ncb.org.uk/Page.asp?originx1838gs_81330095622449n31q531441National Health Service (NHS) - National Research Ethics Service
www.nres.npsa.nhs.ukThe Association of Directors of Adult Social Services (ADASS) - Researchwww.adass.org.uk/research.shtmlThese items do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSPCC. Anyone wishing to obtain any of the items on the list should contact their own public or academic library or bookshop. For information about publications produced by the NSPCC, please contact
NSPCC Publications.
Although the sites listed here are checked regularly, the constantly changing nature of the internet means that some sites may alter after we have viewed them. The NSPCC is not responsible for, nor does it necessarily endorse, the content of these external websites.
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